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| Cover art, "Nopal and Colibre," by Sergio Hernandez |
BEWARE! The“concerted actofforgetting”
Excerpt from AssaultonMexicanAmericanCollectiveMemory,2010–2015
By Rodolfo Acuña
Certain members of the Texas State Board of Education (SBOE) at its January 2018 meeting ignored expert testimony on an agenda item proposing a standardized curriculum and statewide academic standards for the teaching of Mexican American Studies (MAS) in Texas’ public schools. Instead, those SBOE members suggested the Board consider“Latino Studies,” an entirely different basis for a vote at the board’s next meeting on April 11. MAS is taught across the state, but no statewide standards exist, thus guidance is vital for both the significant number of MAS courses and for publishers to write textbooks according to these standards. In other words, the Texas SBOE could be voting on a measure that would effectively undercut MAS as an expanding field of study dating back 50 years. This is prologue to the excerpt below by a preeminent Chicano scholar, which addresses this very idea of erasing memory by renaming existing knowledge and undermining the educational development of millions of Mexican American students.
—Editor’s note
By Rodolfo Acuña
Preface
InherbookCaptiveWomen:OblivionandMemoryinArgentina,Susana Rotkerwritesthatherlackofmemoryleftherwithoutasenseofhistory.Memory,accordingtoRotker,representstheidentityofindividuals,socialgroups,andnationsandthatto“forgetandtorememberarenotopposites;theyaretheveryweaveofrepresentation.”1 Shecontinues,“Ihavenomemoryofmychildhoodbecausenostorywasevertoldofit.”HerforgettingincludesArgentina’scolonialpast,whengenocidalwarswerewagedagainstIndiansandinwhichAfricanswereusedascannonfodder.
Theactoferasinghistoryisnotinthedistantpast.DuringtheArgentinemilitarydictatorshipof1976–1983,aboutthirtythousandpeopleweredetainedordisappeared—thousandsmorewereexecutedbyso-calledsecurityforces.2 ItisnotsurprisingthatmanyoftheArgentineplutocratswanttoforget;similarlyGermansdeniedthehorroroftheHolocaust.The“concertedactofforgetting”isongoingthroughoutthe Americas.Americans,Chileans,Guatemalans, andMexicansallwanttoforgettheirgenocides.3 Fortunately,therearethosewhowanttorememberandsearchforthetruth,asinthecaseofGuatemalaandArgentina.NativeAmericanstodayareresurrectingthiscollectivememoryatStandingRockinNorthDakota.4 EverydaytheerasedmemoryofAfricangenocidesarebecomingpartofourconsciousness.5
AssaultonMexicanAmericanCollectiveMemory,2010–2015isaboutongoingeffortstoerasethememoryofMexicanAmericansinArizonaandCaliforniaandtheendeavorsofMexicanstopreservetheiridentity.ItisastrugglethatisintensifyingwiththegrowingMexican/Latinopopulationas theyattempttoconstructacounter-narrative.6 ThescapegoatsareMexicanAmericanprogramsinArizona,Texas,andevenliberalCalifornia.7 Itisno accidentthattheseprogramsandtheimmigrantsthemselvesareseenas threats.
RepresentativeofthedominantnarrativeisthedocumentaryWaitingforSupermanpremieredin2010.Pushedbythenation’splutocrats,itisanexampleofpropagandaposingasfact;thedocumentaryisreminiscentof WorldWarIImoviesthatdemonizedtheenemy.8 UniversityofWisconsinprofessorsKatySwalwellandMichaelW.Applepositthat“[d]ominantgroupslistencarefullytothelanguageandissuesthatcomefrombelow,”andtheythen“creativelyappropriatethelanguageandissues”tofittheirinterests.Theydefinetheproblemsandthesolutionsinterpretingthesocialworld anddesignatethesolutionof“our”problemsandwhocanfixthem.9
IbeganpostingonFacebookin2012attheageofeightytofindacounter-narrativetotestneoliberalassumptionsthatspewedalllevelsofcontemporarysociety.Iwantedtodistinguishfactfromfantasybyfindingandexposingcounterpointsofviews.Athinlineexistsbetweenwhatistrueandwhatisimagined.Iwantedtoexpandmybaseofknowledge,andFacebookinmostcasesrepresentsoppositionalviewpoints.AdmittedlyIalsowantedtopushapoliticalagendaaswellassupporttheTucsonUnifiedSchoolDistrictSaveEthnicStudiesmovement.WhileIdefinitelyfoundtheotherside,Ialsofoundalotoffakenewsthathadtobecorrected.12
Thebook’sfirstthreechaptersconcentrateonArizona;theyarearefreshercourse onracism.Comingfrom California,I hadnot heardthe wordsspicorgreaser forsome time.This explorationled me to ask why peoplewant toforgetandwhytheydon’twantotherstoremember.OneofthethreadsisArizona’ssun,whichcanonlybeappreciatedifyou’vespentasnowywinterontheeastcoast,intheMidwest,orinWesternEurope.Arizonaisafavoriterefugeforelderlywhiteretirees,popularlyknownassnowbirds.ItisestimatedthatasmanyasfourhundredthousandsnowbirdsliveorvisitArizonapermanentlyorseasonally.Drawntothesunshine,theycompeteforspacewithlargeandsmallconventionfacilitiesacrossthestate.Low-costairfaresalsocontributetothein-migration.13 Thesnowbirdsspendonmedicalcare;mosthavehealthinsuranceand/orMedicare.BeingoldmeanstheyhavemoremoneythantheyoungerMexicanpopulation,andpoliticosferrythem tothepollsonelectiondays.Snowbirdsvoteandhavemoney—thatgivesthempower.14
A2003–2004ArizonaStateUniversitystudyreportedthatduringthevisitorseason,thesnowbirdpopulationspent$1billion;forasmallstate,thatisconsiderable.15 ThereportalsostatesthatfromJanuarythroughMarch2008,thepeakwinter-visitingseason,therefugeesspent$6billion.16 Accordingtoex-ArizonagovernorJanetNapolitano,“Overthenext15years,theaverageageofArizona’spopulationwillsteadilyrise.Infact,by2020, oneinfourArizonanswillbeovertheageof60.”17 In2015,thepopulationofArizonawasestimatedat6,828,065persons,whichislessthantheLos Angelesmetropolitanarea.BlacksorAfricanAmericanswere4.8percent;AmericanIndianandAlaskaNative,5.3percent;Asian,3.4percent;andHispanicorLatino,30.7percent.TherumblingwasalreadynoticeableamongthesnowbirdswhofearedthattheywerelosingtheirstatetotheMexicans.18
ItssizeandhistoricalpresenceshoneaspotlightontheMexicanpopulation,andwhitespanickedthattheyweretakingover.AMarch2014studyreportedthatthemedianageforwhiteswasforty-fivecomparedwithtwenty-fiveforLatinos,andthatincreasednumbersofLatinovoterswerealteringtheshapeofstatepolitics.19 Whitesweregrowingolderandby2010thexenophobiabecameirrational.20 America’sVoicewrote,“HispanicvotersinArizonahaveabsorbedthebruntoftheharshpoliticalenvironmentstateRepublicanscraftedaroundimmigrationandLatinoidentityissues(e.g.,languagepolicy,ethnicstudies,andvotingrights).21
Whitenewscommentatorssaidtheanti-Mexicanclimatewas“perfectlyreasonable.”TherewasverylittlecriticismofthenewSupermenlikethedespoticSheriffJoeArpaioandthegun-totingbeer-belliedwhitemaleswho strut throughthe streets. Just likevampiremovies scaredviewers,theMexicanthreatwaspropagatedtoscarethesnowbirdsintovotingandcontributingtotheRepublicanParty.TheyfeltthattheSupermenwouldprotectthesnowbirds,whofeltsafeseeingwhitemenstruttingaroundwithholsteredpistols.Meanwhile,thexenophobesexaggeratedtheimpactofimmigration,andtheyworkedtoerasethecommunity’shistoricalmemory.
Thefirstthreechaptersofthebookareaboutthestruggletorememberandtopreservethecommunity’scollectivehistoricalmemory.22 Withage,theimportanceofacollectivehistoricalmemorybecomesmorepressing. Memoryisverypersonalandyourememberwhatothershavetoldyouabouthistoryandfindyourselfreferencingthepresentwithwhatyoulearnedaboutthepast.23 Asahistorian,forinstance,Irememberthe1921and1930s’ repatriationsofMexicansandtheassaultsontheforeign-borninthe1960s and1980sandreference themtotoday.Thismemory isfurtherenhanced by talkingtofriendsandrelatives.Walksthroughcommunitiesgiveasenseof placeandbringbackmemories.24 Rememberingisimportant,andthevalueofhistoryisthecreationofacollectivehistoricalmemory.25
Thepurposeoftheculture warsistoerasememory:“Collective memoryisaproductofideologicalconstructionthatcanbeusedasakeyelementintheelaborationofcollectiveidentity.”26 Aninteractiveprocessgivespoliticalandsocialsignificancetoevents.Itislinkedtoanawarenessofacollectivepast.Intheabsenceofawrittenhistory,memoryispreservedbythemembersofthecommunitythroughvariousmethods.27
Thestrugglesofthepastfiveorsixyearsshowhowthedominantsocietybenefitsfromthecontrolorerasureofminorities’collectivehistoricalmemory.Nationalandlocalrulingelitesusemisconceptionsandmisunderstandingsaspartoftheerasureprocess.Theerasure keepsthedominant structureintactandallowsthesocializationofindividualswithintheminoritycommunity.28 SimonedeBeauvoirinTheEthicsofAmbiguitywrites,“[T]heoppressorwouldnotbesostrongifhedidnothaveaccomplicesamongtheoppressedthemselves;mystificationisoneoftheformsofoppression.”29 ArizonaandCaliforniaarenodifferentandareriddledwithcollaboratorsofalldefinitions.Thedisaffectedseeklegitimacythroughanunconsciousandevenopencollaboration.
Thisbookisnotwrittenforacademics;itisforstudentsandcommunityfolk.Meta-languageisgreat,butyoumaynotbeconnectingwithyourintendedreader.Astreetdudemaygetalotmorefromgraffitiimagesthanfromanelaboratelyconstructedwordpuzzle.Historicalphotosmakememoriesvivid;theyinvitethereadertobreakdownhisorherthoughts.Languageisaweapon;itisusedtomaintainsocialcontrolthusitisessentialtotakebackanarrativeclosertothetruth.Whiteradicalsduringthe1960swerebeingbeatenupbygangkidsinthehousingprojectsbecausetheybelievedpartymembersweretalkingdowntothembyusingtermssuchas“historicalmaterialism.”Ifpeopledonotunderstandyou,itisyourfault.AsRotkerputit,“Themodeofrepresentingrealityisusuallymuchmoreimportantthanrealityitself.”30
Thefirstchapterdealswith2010.IthadbeenformedbytheaftershocksoftheGeorgeW.BushyearsandthewideningincomeinequalitythatfurthermarginalizedMexicanAmericansandLatinas/os.Americachangedandfor manyitbecameanationoflostdreams.TheonlyoneswhoseemedtobelieveinAmericaanditsfictionaldreamweretheimmigrantswhowantedinontheseductionoftheAmericanDreamandthesuperpatriots.31 Two themesrecur:thestruggletosaveethnicstudiesandtheprivatizationof Arizonaandhighereducation.
Theyear2006intermsimmigrationwashistoric;likeCalifornia’sProposition187(1994),itproducedagenerationofactivists.BythenitwasclearthattheimmigrantcommunitylostfearandlikeotheroppressedpeoplewerefightingbackbymountingmassiveprotestsinLosAngeles,Dallas,Chicago,withsmallerproteststhroughoutthenation.32 OnApril10,2006, millionsofLatinos,manyofwhomwereimmigrants,tooktothestreetsof 140U.S.cities.Itwasoneofaseriesofmarchesdemonstratingthatimmigrantsweretiredofbeingafraid,tiredofbeingintimidatedbyICEandextralegalgroupssuchastheTeaPartyandminutemen.33 After2006,theycouldnot,wouldnot,beignored.Immigrantshadformedacollectivememoryorconsciousness—theyhadnochoice.Theimmigrant,likesomanyrepressed minorities,came out ofthe closet. Withinthe immigrant communityweretheDreamerswhohadbeenraisedintheUnitedStatesandfounditnaturaltomakehumanrightsdemands.Moreover,theDreamerswereahigh techgenerationusingtheInternettocommunicate,andtheywereforthemostpartbilingual.2008wasapresidentialelectionyearwithU.S.-born Mexicans/Latinosmakingup60percentoftheLatinopopulationgrowth between2000and2010.34
AssaultonMexicanAmericanCollectiveMemory,2010–2015issubtitledSwimmingwithSharkstounderscoretheviciousnessoftheRepublicanandcorporateestablishmentthatinfestedthepoliticalwaterswithsharks,35 whichmuffleandconfusecallsforhelp.Thesesharksareadifferentbreedfromeverydaystreetsharks.Thesharkscontrolmemorytoconfusetheswimmers.Inordertoswimwiththesharks,itisvitaltopreservethecollectivememoryofthosetryingtosurviveandnottoletthemforgethowtoswim,tokeepthecollective memory ofotherswhohavesurvivedalive, andtoexposethemyththattheycanindividuallyswimwiththesharks.
Theauthorhasspentthree-quartersofhislifeintheChicana/omovementandChicana/ostudies.Hisfootprintsresuscitatethecollectivememorythatacommunityneedstodefenditselffromthesharks.Thissurvivalisimportanttomebecausetheyarethememoriesofmyparentsandtheirparents.Idonotbelieveinahereafter,soIknowthatIwillbepartofthisworldforaslongas Iamremembered.Deathisbeingforgotten.
Therichandfamouspreservetheirmemoriesforaslongastheycanremainpartofthecommunityofsharks.Theycarvetheirnamesandtheircausesintobuildings.Thefamousandtheinfamouswritebookstoembellishtheirimages,tomakethemappeartobeSupermen.Inorderforthemtobetheprotagonists,itisessentialtowipeoutthememoriesofthepoorandtheviciousnessofthesharks.Theydestroycommunitiestocontrolthesememories,memoriesthatwarnpeopleaboutthesharks,andthelivesofthepoor areblownawaywithoutatrace,likedustinthedesert.Withinacoupleof generations,itisasiftheyneverexisted.Meanwhile,therichappearas benefactorswhogiveendowments,havebuildingsnamedafterthem,andhavetheirportraitspainted.Therichthusliveforever.36
InwritingaboutChicanas/osIbenefitedbycomingfromastablehome;lifegivesmetheopportunitytochiselmyfootprintsintostone.Publicationsmarkmyjourneyandrecordmymemories.Admittedlythesefootprints meander.Whenwasyoungandidealistic,IbelievedthatChicana/ostudieswouldshiftpublicdiscoursethroughthecreationofChicanothought.IbelievedthatIcouldswimalonewiththesharks.In1969,however,I realizedthatfewpaidattentiontoorcaredaboutU.S.Mexicans.ConsiderthatMesoamericanreligionsareamongthefewmajorworldreligionsthathavenotbeenpreserved.
ThehistoryoftheMexicanAmericanistransnational.Justlikepeopleithasnoborders.ThusMexicoisalwayswithus.Theeventsof2014shook ourillusionsofMéxicoLindoanditawakenedusfromillusionsthatwehadafootoneachsideoftheborder.TherealitywasthatMexicoisagraveyard.The disappearance of theforty-three Ayotzinapanormalistas (normalschoolstudents)killedanymoralauthoritythattheMexicanstatehad.ItalsoexposedAmericancomplicityinthemoraldecayoftheMexicanstateandcivilsociety,andithighlightedtherealitythatMéxicoLindoexistsonlyinMexicanAmericans’minds.Therealityisthatthepoliticalprocessisanillusioncreatedbypoliticalpartiesthat “excitepeople”andgivethemhopethattheycanwinpeacefullywithoutarevolution.
MexicanAmericansaretheoldestandmostnumerousoftheLatinogroups.Thisispartiallybecausetheyhavehadmoretimetoevolvewithinthesystem.Moreover,theyshareatwo-thousand-mile borderwiththeUnitedStates.Mexicoisalsothesecond-largestSpanish-speakingcountryinLatinAmericawithapopulationof127millionpeople.DemocratsandRepublicansdeludethemintothinkingthattheyarepoliticalplayersandthattheirpopulation will givethema shareof economic andpoliticalbounties.37 Ourhistoricalmemoryisbeingco-optedandwarpedbythemediathatsees historythroughtheeyesoftheso-calledHispanicleaders.Withoutanyhistoricalreflection,theyerasethetermsMexican,MexicanAmerican,andChicana/oandsubstitutenon-peoplewordssuchasHispanicandLatino.Meanwhile,manyChicana/oleadershavebecomecheerleadersfor“HispanicPower,”chanting,“We’reNumber1.”
Communitiesaretrenchesandfirewallsthatshieldminoritiesfromthesharks’attemptstoerasetheircollectivememoriesandrecollectionsofpaststruggles.38 WhenMexicanAmericans andLatinostalkaboutacommunity,theygenerallyrefertotheirbarrio,theircolonia.Itcanalsorefertotheirnationality—theirpeople,theirpaisanos/as.“Tobepartofacommunity,you havetobebondedwithitandcareaboutit.Lovebeginsandendswithresponsibility.Thepeopleinacommunityremembercommonstruggles,theysharememories,theyrememberpastlossesandvictories,andrejoiceandanguishwithwhatwentrightandwrong.”39
DevonPeñaoftenquotesJacquesDerrida:“Memoryisamoralobligation,allthetime.”40 Historicalmemory,specificallycollectivememory,isthesubjectofmuchofthisbook.41 Thecanonsofmostdisciplinesaresimilar.They centeron sincerity,truthfulness,and accuracy.The problemis that professionalsarehumanbeingsandmanyoftenbringtheirbiasesandtheirambitionstotheirwork.Theyarenotimpartial,theydonotalwaystellthetruth,andtheydonotdifferentiatebetweenfactandopinion.
Rodolfo F. Acuña, a janitor and then a teacher in the Los Angeles City Schools from 1956–1965, earned a doctorate from the University of Southern California in Latin American Studies. In 1969, Acuña was the founding chair of Chicano Studies at San Fernando Valley State (today California State University Northridge), where he is now Professor Emeritus of Chicano Studies. His seminal work on Chicano history, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos, is in its 8th edition (Longman, 2015). He has also written three children’s books and, a prolific historian, always has another book in the works. Footnotes follow after the break…
NOTES
1. SusanaRotker,CaptiveWomen:OblivionandMemoryinArgentina(Minneapolis,MN: UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2002),p.2.
3. UniversityofMinnesotaPress,CaptiveWomen:OblivionandMemoryinArgentinaby SusanRotker,UniversityofMinnesotaPress,https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/captive-women.
4. KevinKemper,“TribalSovereigntyMeansCompetition,BroadbandAccess,andEconomicDevelopmentforIndianCountry:ALawandEconomicsAnalysisoftheEfficiencyof theFCC’sStandingRockSiouxCase,”JournalofInformationPolicy3(2013):442–463. HarrisonBerry,“ThoseWhoStandwithStandingRockinIdaho,”BoiseWeekly,October13, 2016,http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/those-who-stand-with-standing-rock-in-idaho/ Content?oid=3910119.W.GeorgeLovell,“TheArchiveThatNeverWas:StateTerrorand HistoricalMemoryinGuatemala,”GeographicalReview103(2013):199.
5. KgomotsoMasemola,“SynecdocheandAllegoryintheFilmicRecordoftheMemory ofAfricanGenocideinJohnleCarré’sTheConstantGardener,”JournalofLiteraryStudies 30,no.3(2014):67–77.
6. AllisonDanielAnders,“CircuitsofDominanceinEducationandPoverty:ControlLogicandCounterNarrative,”TheUrbanReview43,no.4(2011):528–546.
7. AllisonDanielAnders.2011.“CircuitsofDominanceinEducationandPoverty:Control LogicandCounterNarrative,”TheUrbanReview43,no.4:528–546.
8. JamesTrier,“Challenging‘WaitingforSuperman’throughDetournement,”Journalof PopularFilmandTelevision41,no.2(2013):68–77.AllenGreenberg,“Commentary:Don’t Wait,GoNowtoSee‘WaitingforSuperman,’”ColoradoSpringsBusinessJournal,2010 (CO).
9. KatySwalwellandMichaelApple,ReviewingPolicy:StartingtheWrongConversations—ThePublicSchoolCrisisand‘WaitingforSuperman.’”EducationalPolicy25,no.2 (2011):368.DianeRavitch,“HowBillionairesAreSuccessfullyFoolingUsintoDestroying PublicEducation—andWhyPrivatizationIsaTerribleIdea,”Alternet,July21,2016,http://www.alternet.org/how-billionaires-are-successfully-fooling-us-destroying-public-education-and-why-privatization.
10. TheTrumpcampaigninrealityrepresentsareturntothe1850sandtheKnowNothing Party.Itisanativistpartythatisanti-immigrantandAmerican—astheydefineit.
11. CaitlinEmmaandMichaelStratford,“TrumpSelectsDeVosasEducationSecretary,” Politico,November23,2016,http://www.politico.com/story/2016/11/betsy-devos-education-secretary-trump-231804.
12. BogdanLepădatu,“TheAgeofGhost-Modernism?TheNeo-liberalGlobalizationProjectvs.theAnti-GlobalizationCounter-Narrative:ADialogicInquiry,”SferaPoliticii(2010): 66–79.PeterCohan,“DoesFacebookGenerateoverHalfItsAdRevenuefromFakeNews?” Forbes,November25,2016,http://www.forbes.com/sites/petercohan/2016/11/25/does-facebook-generate-over-half-its-revenue-from-fake-news/?partner=yahootix#5ee1f6bb2f33.
13. MaryHorton,“Arizona:SnowbirdsFlocktoValleyoftheSun,”SuccessfulMeetings
37.5(1988):135.“TheRisingCostofRealEstateHasn’tKeptSnowbirdsfromMakingTheir AnnualTrekSouth;ManyAreInvestinginAffordable‘ParkModel’Cottages,WhichAre BeingSetUpinCampgroundsandRVResortsAcrosstheSunbelt;MoreThan50,000SnowbirdsWillSpendtheWinterof2007inParkModelVacationCottages,withMostResidingin Florida,TexasandArizona,AccordingtotheRecreationalParkTrailerIndustryAssociation.” PRNewswire(2007):n/a.DoreenDaily,“Snowbirds’Mecca:Yuma,Arizona,IsSoPopular withRVers,SomeCallItHomeYear-Round,”Motorhome38,no.2(2001):36.
14. KennethKHChui,StevenACohen,andElenaNNaumova,“SnowbirdsandInfection—NewPhenomenainPneumoniaandInfluenzaHospitalizationsfromWinterMigrationof OlderAdults:A SpatiotemporalAnalysis.”BMCPublicHealth11(2011): 444.Doreen Daily, “Snowbirds’Mecca:Yuma,Arizona,IsSoPopularwithRVers.”
15. ChrisCoppola,“TrackingSnowbirds’FinancialImpactinValleyTricky,”TheRepublic,January20,2015,http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/mesa/2015/01/20/phoenix-area-snowbirds-easily-seen-tracking-financial-impact/22034575/.
17. JanetNapolitano,“Aging2020Arizona’sPlanforanAgingPopulation,”Officeofthe Governor,StateofArizona,August2005.
18. “QuickFacts:Arizona,”U.S.Census,http://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/04.
19. America’sVoice,“ArizonaReport:LatinoDecisions,”March2014,p.3,http://www.latinodecisions.com/files/2413/9387/3160/Arizona_AV_Report.pdf.
22. MartinKusch,“Reflexivity,Relativism,Microhistory:ThreeDesiderataforHistorical Epistemologies,”Erkenntnis75,no.3(2011):483–494.
23. FelipeMullerandFedericoBermejo,“TheHistoricalandLivedSourcesofCollective Memory,”RevistaDePsicología31,no.2(2013):247–264.
24. DoloresHayden,ThePowerofPlace:UrbanLandscapesasPublicHistory,”2nded. (Cambridge:TheMITPress,1997).
25. RonW.Wilhelm,“RememberingTogether:ReflectionsontheValueofCollective HistoricalMemory,”CurriculumandTeachingDialogue11,no.1–2(2009):23.
26. InesGabel,“HistoricalMemoryandCollectiveIdentity:WestBankSettlersReconstruct thePast,”MediaCultureSociety35no.2(March2013):250–259.
27. FelipeMullerandWilliamHirst,“ResistancetotheInfluencesofOthers:Limitstothe FormationofaCollectiveMemorythroughConversationalRemembering,” AppliedCognitive Psychology24,no.5(July2010):608–625.
28. AlbertDoja,“ClaudeLévi-StraussatHisCentennia:TowardaFutureAnthropology,” Theory,Culture&Society25,no.7–8(2008):321–340.WilliamMishlerandRichardRose, “Trust,DistrustandSkepticism:PopularEvaluationsofCivilandPoliticalInstitutionsinPostCommunistSocieties,”TheJournalofPolitics59,no.2(May1997):418–451.
29. SimonedeBeauvoirIII,“ThePositiveAspectofAmbiguity”inTheEthicsofAmbiguity,trans.BernardFrechtman(NewYork:PhilosophicalLibrary,1947),e-book,https:// www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/de-beauvoir/ambiguity/ch03.htm.
31. RodolfoF. Acuña, “LosingFear: DecadeofStruggle and Hope,” in OccupiedAmerica, 8thed.(NewYork:Pearson,2014).
34. “TheMexican-AmericanBoom:BirthsOvertakeImmigration,”PewResearchCenter, July14,2011,http://www.pewhispanic.org/2011/07/14/the-mexican-american-boom-brbirths- overtake-immigration/.JensManuelKrogstadandMarkHugoLopez,“HispanicNativity Shift,”PewResearchCenter,April29,2014,http://www.pewhispanic.org/2014/04/29/ hispanic-nativity-shift/.KevinR.Johnson,andBillOngHing,“TheImmigrantRightsMarches of2006andtheProspectsforaNewCivilRightsMovement,”HarvardCivilRights-Civil LibertiesLawReview42,no.1(2007):99–138.
35. PeterH.Stone,“WatchOut,Dems:SheldonAdelsonandtheKochBrothersAreCloser ThanEver,”HuffingtonPost,June14,2015,http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/06/14/sheldon-adelson-koch-brothers_n_7563866.html.
36. Witnesstheconservativethinktanksandfoundationendowedbytherichwhogettan exemptions.
37. RodolfoF.Acuña,“StudyingHistoryinTranslation,”mexmigration[blog],May14, 2013, http://mexmigration.blogspot.com/2013/05/acuna-on-writing-history.html.
38. RodolfoF.Acuña,“DyingCommunities:ForgottenMemories,”LAProgressive,January30,2015,https://www.laprogressive.com/dying-communities/.
40. JacquesDerrida,“Deconstruction,StanfordPresidentialLecturesintheHumanitiesand Arts,”StandfordPresidentialLecturesintheHumanitiesandArts,http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/derrida/deconstruction.html.
41. RodolfoF.Acuña,“TheInconvenientTruthErasureofMemory,”Ethnos_Boriquen [blog],July21,2013,http://ethnosboriquen.blogspot.com/2013/07/style-definitions-table.html.